Factors That Influence Consumers Purchasing Decision Essay

Factors That Influence Consumers Purchasing Decision - Essay Example The researcher states that a mind map has been developed in order to explain the various factors that are observed to largely influence the buying procedure of iPhone 5S. A group debate has also been conducted in order to analyze the aforesaid subject matter, i.e. the patterns of consumer behavior in the iPhone 5S market context. In relation to the findings obtained, it can be apparently observed that psychological, personal, social and situational factors impose strong influences on consumers’ purchasing decisions. Furthermore, the group debate revealed various internal along with external factors that play a distinctive role to determine the selection and purchase procedures of products and/or services as followed by consumers in the modern-day markets. Consumer behavior is described as the study of the activities that commonly involve searching, evaluating and purchasing of specific products or services followed by the customers in satisfying their respective requirements. This concept mainly concentrates on how people make decisions concerning the utilization of money, time and effort on consuming products and/or services. In other words, it can be affirmed that consumer buying behavior can be described as the activities with respect to acquisition, utilization, and disposition of products, services, thoughts, and experiences. In the field of marketing management, consumer behavior explains the reasons and logic that trigger purchasing decision and consumption pattern of the buyers. It elucidates the procedure by which, consumers make purchasing decisions. This definition clearly exhibits the idea that consumer behavior is a decision-making procedure, which begins in the mind of the customers and leads towards a set if short-listed substitute products or services that can be purchased or availed to suffice their requirements. Subsequently, understanding consumer behavior is important because it assists organizations to develop strategies and ensure s uccessful attainment of their marketing goals.

Enthalpy of Combustion

Enthalpy of Combustion

Ambrose Bierces Ise of Flashbacks and the Supernatural in his Short Stories :: essays papers

Ambrose Bierces Ise of Flashbacks and the Supernatural in his Short Stories AMBROSE BIERCE'S: USE OF FLASHBACKS AND THE SUPERNATURAL IN HIS SHORT STORIES Ambrose Bierce is known for using both flashbacks and the supernatural in his short stories "An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge" and "The Death of Haplin Frayser." Bierce was born on June 24, 1842, in House Cave Creek, Meigs County, Ohio. He also disappeared in Mexico while acting as an observer of that country's civil war in January 1, 1914. Beirce's literary reputation is based primarily on his short stories about the Civil War and the supernatural. "Mancken considered him to be the "First writer of fiction ever to treat war realistically." Bierce grew up around the military, he entered a military academy in his teen years and then later on in his life was involved in war. He was involved in the U.S. Army, served with the Ninth Indiana Infantry Regiment as a drummer boy and Buell's Army of the Ohio. Many believe Bierce wrote about wars so realistically because he experienced war first hand. Many of Bierce's works are compared to Edgar Allan Poe because their stories share an attraction to death in its more bizarre forms. Bierce also worked as a novelist, journalist, poet, essayist, and a critic. Bierce has also written many other works which include The Devil's Dictionary, "The Secret of Macarger's Gulch" and "The Middle Toe of the Right Foot." In the short story "An Occurrance atOwl Creek Bridge" Bierce uses flashbacks of the soldiers in war to descibe what happened to them throught out the course of war. Many of the soldiers have scary flash backs. In the short story "An Occurrance at Owl Creek Bridge" Bierce describes exactly what the soldiers went through in battle and gives details of deaths that happened. Although Beirce's figures are not very well developed in any of his short stories, each story expresses a deep psychological trauma, one that ends in madness or loss. In war the characters become part of the military. Bierce either tells alot about the hero in his short stories or as little as he pleases. So the hero in "An Occurrance at Owl Creek Bridge" is a spy who is about to be hanged. In this short story many people take for granted the reason he is being hanged and what his beliefs are. Bierce provides the minimum of character description: Peyton Farquhar was a well-to-do planter of an old and highly respected Alabama family.

Officer Selection

Because of the range of duties, officers should possess certain traits: hectically agility, the ability to cope with difficult situations, well-developed writing skills, good communication skills, sound Judgment, compassion, strong powers of observation, and the ability to both exert and respect commands of authority. Minimum Requirements Every department sets its own standards when considering candidates for police officers, however most departments require a series of minimum standards which perspective applicants must have.All applicants must be at least 21 years of age and have or be eligible to receive a driver's license because their primary duty Is patrol, ND they must be able to drive to respond to Incidents. Police officers must also be able to possess a firearm. In order to qualify to own a firearm, a person must be at least twenty-one years old. Applicants must also have no Felony convictions. Convicted felons also are prohibited from possessing a firearm, which thereby ba rs them from becoming police officers.Individuals with domestic violence convictions are no longer able to possess a firearm, thereby prohibiting them from becoming police officers as well (Grant & Terry, 2009). Finally many police departments now have educational standards for recruits. Nearly all departments require officers to have at least a high school diploma. And many require at least some college credits. Written Examination The written examination is the first step in becoming a police officer once a formal application has been submitted.The test varies by department, but It might be a civil service exam, an exam produced by the individual police department, or one produced by a private testing company. The exam does not test specific legal or criminal Justice knowledge, but rather evaluates the candidate's basic reading, writing, and comprehension skills. The exam will likely contain a number of different sections, whereby the candidate must be able to understand and write In English, write a sample essay, understand basic mathematics, memorize facts, show sound 1 OFF reasoning Ana logic, Ana analyze potential scenarios .For clamatorial ten written examination is developed by the California Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training (POST) and measures reading comprehension and writing abilities (caperers. Com, 2011). Departmental Interview Departmental Interview will evaluate the applicant's interpersonal skills, problem solving, oral communication and other abilities not tested by other examination components. The interview is not scored; however, the interview panel will make recommendations regarding who should proceed in the final hiring process.The interview can be structured, unstructured, or a combination or both. In a structured interview, the candidate is asked a series of questions regarding the Job and his or her specific abilities. Structured questions such as â€Å"Do you drink alcohol†, usually require specified answers direct answers. The alternative to this would be to conduct a semi structured interview with open ended questions on particular topics. Structured interviews allow for a better comparison of candidates on specific topics, pen-ended questions are likely to elicit more information.Though the candidate must pass all phases of the selection process in order to be hired as a police officer, the interview process is critical in the assessment of the candidate's attitudes, appearance, and demeanor. Physical Ability Examination The Physical Ability Examination will measure physical performance through a series of exercises that will be administered on a pass/fail basis. Measuring a police candidate's level of physical agility is a crucial part of the selection process, although the physical agility test has been controversial and has undergone significant hangs since its inception (Grant & Terry, 2009).The Physical Ability Examination has gone through many changes. Until the sass's the test required applicants to demonstrate substantial upper body strength which kept many women from completing the test successfully thereby eliminating them from the candidate pool. The introduction of Title VII in 1972 as well as the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) guidelines on sex discrimination barred the refusal to hire a female applicant because of characteristics attributed to women as a class and thus the physical agility tests have changed considerably in the past few decades.Psychological and Polygraph Tests A Polygraph Examination is used to verify the veracity and accuracy of information submitted by candidates regarding, but not necessarily limited to: use of controlled substances; driving, criminal, medical and employment history; and other Job-related factors. The polygraph works by recording involuntary physiological changes in the body that occur when a person is partaking in conscious deceit.The purpose of the psychological screening process is to measur e intelligence and to identify personality characteristics and any mental disorders that may lead to problematic behavior in he future (Grant & Terry, 2009). Psychological screening, particularly those measuring conscientiousness, emotional stability, agreeableness, and integrity – have been shown to aid in the prediction of on-the-Job performance across a wide variety of occupations, including peace officers (POST. A. Gob, 2011) It is important to screen out individuals who may exhibit mental or personality deficits, because police officers interact with individuals on a daily basis and often in high-stress situations. Background Investigation I en employment, connecter Ana Docudrama Investigation consists AT a tongue duty of the candidate's history prior to appointment to determine fitness for this employment.Reasons for rejection include use of controlled substances, felony convictions, repeated or serious violations of the law, inability to work cooperatively with co-work ers, inability to accept supervision, or other relevant factors. Candidates who are disqualified during the background investigation process must wait two years from the date of disqualification before they may reapply to take the Police Officer examination.Candidates who are disqualified because of uncorrectable deiced problems, serious drug abuse or because of criminal records may possibly not be allowed to reapply. Training Once a police candidate has passed through the selection process, he or she is hired on probation, a trial period of one or two years during which the officer is evaluated. This probationary period begins with training at the police academy, a school where officers learn on-the-Job techniques prior to receiving full police powers.Officers must train at the academy for up to 1,100 hours, and they receive full pay and benefits from the time they enter the academy (Grant & Terry, 2009). Training is rigorous, demanding and exhausting. It is also a rewarding life-c hanging experience. New officers learn how much they are capable of by succeeding at seemingly impossible challenges, both physical and mental Mainland. Com, 2011). While in the academy, the officer receives educational as well as practical physical The Los Angles Police Department (LAPS) Academy Curriculum includes training.Academics, which encompasses arrest and booking procedures, preliminary investigation techniques, radio and communications, report writing, traffic investigation, and traffic enforcement, Driving, which includes emergency procedures ND defensive driving techniques, Firearms Training, which trains candidates in effective and safe use of police issued firearms, Law, which covers search and seizure, evidence, laws of arrest, crimes against persons and property, sex crimes, crimes against children, and other general criminal statutes falling under the California Penal Code, Los Angles Municipal Code, Welfare and Institutions Code, and Federal Laws, and finally physi cal training which builds strength and endurance through physical conditioning while promoting a positive attitude toward a fitness lifestyle. It also encompasses training in physical arrest techniques, controls, and weaponless defense Mainland. Com, 2011).Development Once a new police officer leaves the academy, they are assigned a field training officer (FOOT) who assists the new officer to acclimate into the police culture, or experience the solicitation process. Solicitation involves learning the values, social processes, and behaviors associated with the police institution. It involves the patterns of interaction that depend on the relations of individuals in particular settings (Grant & Terry, 2009). Foot can have a significant influence over new officers ND assist them in dealing with the inevitable stress and cynicism of the Job. Conclusion Selecting qualified police officers is a lengthy, competitive process, involving multiple phases. Candidates are exposed too battery of tests both physically and mentally to ascertain their overall qualifications and abilities.

The Journal of Community Informatics

Introduction The world has seen a lot of natural disasters to last a lifetime. These disasters leave us with ‘spill over’ effects that could last for many years. Our resources are depleted; we lose billions worth of property and assets and, worst of all, we lose countless lives. These can be attributed to the unpreparedness of a country in facing the aftermath of natural disasters. The level of destruction after a natural disaster depends not just on the magnitude of the disaster, but on the quality of infrastructure construction and disaster preparedness in areas where these disasters tend to hit.Anderson Cooper, a reporter during Hurricane Katrina’s wake in the United States says that hunger, dead bodies left on the streets and the damages done on properties show what unpreparedness can do. Lakoff adds that â€Å"we are not prepared† for other disastrous events that might follow, whether tornado or hurricane or flood. It is very imperative for us to know how to prepare and what kind of natural disaster we need to prepare for (06). However, there seems to be poor coordination between the local and central government when it comes to preparing for these disasters.Debates ensued about who does its responsibilities and who does not. Coordination between these two agencies must be established if we are to minimize or be prepared for any incidents (Tufton 05). Gurstein (05) says that transmission of information is very important in being prepared for the disasters. He adds that whatever technological means available should make way for outputs that can be interpreted and used effectively at the local level. Moreover, warning systems and preparedness should be supported even in the local level to allow the communities to â€Å"absorb and adapt such information into ways that could be locally useful.† According to the constructionist critique, organized claims-making activities produce ways of defining and labeling natural hazards an d disasters. This means that social processes that give way to public education about disasters are important to understand the disasters and not just what happens or could happen. For instance, one analysis of the earthquake problem shows how views on the severity of the earthquake threat and strategies for managing seismic risk were a result of a small group of earthquake establishment.Moreover, the institutional interests of scientific disciplines which focus on the study of earthquakes channel the social construction of the earthquake problem. The constructionist perspective focuses on the importance of finding out the social activities that interest groups and stakeholders engage with while also focusing on disaster-related problems and looking for the response they want from governments and institutions. Moreover, the constructionist view says that the properties of disasters are not inherent in the phenomenon but are the product of social definition.Following the disasters wh ich struck Japan, other events that have to do with failures of technology and of technological control systems have impacted Japan so much. But in the case of disaster research tradition, disasters do not result from the failure of systems to adapt to environmental extremes. Earthquakes in Japan Natural disasters are events which lead to unfavorable outcomes. These include earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, volcanic eruption, hurricanes, storms, tornadoes and many more. Earthquakes are tremors, or movements, of the earth’s surface caused by the release of stress along fault lines.This release of stress produces movement in masses of rocks which eventually leads to shock waves. The Richter scale was developed to measure the magnitude of seismic waves. But even if there were researches and equipment designed for the earthquake, still it is impossible to predict an earthquake. It is inevitable that more earthquakes will visit Japan again and again. Japan has experienced natural dis asters more than any other country did, earthquakes being the most common because of the country’s geographical position. It is situated in a zone where one plate is being forced beneath another plate.Moreover, it is the meeting point of two pieces of the giant Pacific plate, which move in different directions alongside each other. These causes earthquakes to visit Japan very often. Most of these are very minor, although there are strong earthquakes from time to time. It is the strong earthquakes that the experts and public officials were concerned about. Japan became one of the leading countries in developing technologies to predict the occurrence of earthquakes. Satellite remote sensing technologies can now monitor the environment and provide basis for disaster warning.More advances in the performance of the networking technologies have made it possible to open new opportunities for the utilization of data gathered. However, prediction and forecasts of earthquakes are still not very accurate. Other seasonal and frequent disasters, on the other hand, can be forecasted and predicted more easily. But the most important thing is that planning should be done to mitigate the effects of these disasters. Perhaps one of the worst earthquakes to hit Japan happened during September of 1923, in Tokyo and Yokohama.The earthquake damaged hundred thousand homes and buildings, and the fires that followed had more damage done. More than one hundred and forty thousand people perished during this quake. The heat of the fires also caused tornado-like winds. Other people died because the fires sucked all the oxygen in the area. The more recent earthquake to be recorded was on January 17, 1995 in Kobe, Japan. The earthquakes began in the densely populated areas in the wee hours of the morning. The Kobe earthquake, measured 7. 2 shindo, destroyed newly built and old establishments, dikes, ports, killed people and created ravaging fires that were out of control.Japan’ s Preparedness and Monitoring Being prepared for any disaster does not stop after a disaster passed by. It is a continuous process. It requires people to make efforts. The public and its government must be well prepared, especially when it comes to coping with these events. The need to minimize, if not to totally eliminate disasters and the possible after effects, spearheaded the many researches and studies which eventually led to the invention and development of a wide array of systems and technological tools available today. This further improved the preparedness system of Japan.With the use of hi-tech equipment, Japan made sure to erect structures that are disaster resistant. Moreover, buildings and homes can be reinforced inexpensively to the individual, company, or state to withstand the effects of earthquakes or other disasters. Communication also became important in all aspects of being prepared. Thankfully, the Internet facilitated enhanced communication and exchange of info rmation. Communication between governments and agencies became easier and faster. Japan believes that it is one key factor in the success of their preparedness system.Many conferences were held which discussed various topics that concern technological systems and advancements for forecasting natural disasters. Japan has funded many researches and projects when it comes to prevention of disasters. There has been an education for natural disaster preparedness in Natural Asia-Pacific, which focuses on gathering, developing and disseminating information. The Japanese country has improved its preparedness system by continuously researching and studying technologies to monitor the possible occurrence of natural disasters.Several technologies have been adapted to monitor any anomalous conditions. The use of Internet and satellite data for monitoring and forecasting natural hazards became the foundation for many Japanese agencies to avoid any unfavorable outcomes. Japan’s preparednes s system consists of conducting projects and initiatives to monitor and prepare for earthquakes. The National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) developed the i-Space Project for disaster management. The project uses space technology for monitoring disaster and information networking.It targets natural disasters, particularly large-scale earthquakes in Tokai. It develops experiment system and conducts pilot experiments using Jet-plane and handy cameras. These technological advancements proved to be helpful in doing what they were designed for. Benson and Clay say that â€Å"natural hazards warrant more serious consideration in the formulation of national economic policies and strategies† (04). Planning and assessment must be done to reduce any risk. Right at this moment, thousands of separate technological tools are being used around the world.These tools are not designed to talk to each other. But if they are linked as a system of bigger systems, the benefits will be far from what we can dare to hope. Due to the fact that people around the world will benefit, there is a need for an urgent development of a comprehensive global system. This will enable countries to save billions of dollars. The aftermath of what happened in Kobe in 1995 tells the Japanese to always be prepared for what might happen. They know it is going to happen, but not when or where (Petersen 07). This is where the technological tools will be helpful.The use of satellite in monitoring plays an important role in revealing geological structures such as active faults, which points to the movements of different areas of the Earth surface. Certain technological developments have also helped vulcanologists to be skillful at predicting when a certain volcano will erupt, and this also leads to prediction of an earthquake that might follow. Satellite images would reveal any active faults that might be connected to earthquake centers. There are also several methods of direct involving o f fault parameters in seismic zoning.GIS and data bases are also important when using satellite data for monitoring natural hazards. Last year, Japan launched one of the world’s largest natural disaster-monitoring satellites. As early as September 2005, the rocket launch was ready, but technical problems and bad weather prevented the Japanese from launching it into space. The satellite was named Advanced Land Observing Satellite (ALOS), one of the many satellites that Japan plans to launch. ALOS can capture images from areas where natural disasters hit.Moreover, it will be useful in drafting maps and surveying the natural resources. The Japanese government plans to share whatever information with other Asian, European and Indian agencies. As a leading country in inventing technologies, Japan’s launching of the ALOS was very important in the space programme. However, the present situation shows that it is not possible or difficult to grasp situations when it comes to la rge-scale earthquakes and to coordinate overall management, to use public communications and to access disaster information.The Japanese people realize the importance of education and preparedness as significant factors in reducing the vulnerability of a country to these disasters. This led to education programs about disaster awareness and was suggested to be taught in all schools and workplaces. There were also programs such as disaster awareness, preparedness and education spearheaded by governmental and non-governmental organizations. These programs were first promoted at the grassroots level for effectiveness. Scientists in Japan also work side by side the groups and individuals in the country, assisting in the programs.Disastrous events such as hurricanes, floods, droughts, tsunamis, earthquakes and volcanic eruptions create damages to our lives. Although no amount of preparation can stop these events from happening, their effects can be minimized by knowing when and where the y will strike and knowing the best response to the victims. Improvement in predicting these disasters minimizes the substantial loss and damage to life and properties and helps the government to be fully equipped in emergency responses.Thankfully, some countries have contributed to technological advancements that became useful in being prepared, especially Japan where most of earthquake activities take place. Satellites became significant in observing weather forecasting and any changes that might signal any upcoming disaster. The computer boom also made it possible for experts to be accurate in predicting formation of natural disasters. Information has been disseminated and helped the countries tremendously.These technologies for preparedness and monitoring in Japan have revolutionized the way people respond to the many natural disasters the earth experiences, particularly earthquakes. For this reason, the people can now breathe much better because they know that they can be warned before a disaster strike and the technologies available can provide them information on how to be prepared and to respond to the crisis. WORKS CITED Gurstein, Michael. â€Å"Tsunami Warning Systems and the Last Mile Towards Community Based and ICT Enabled Disaster Response Systems.† The Journal of Community Informatics I. 2 (2005): 14-17. Lakoff, Andrew. †From Disaster to Catastrophe: The Limits of Preparedness. † 11 Jun 2006. Ministerial Conference on Environment and Development in Asia and the Pacific 2000 Japan. â€Å"Natural Disasters. † 31 August-5 September 2000. Putnam, Laurie. â€Å"By Choice or by Chance: How the Internet is Used to Prepare for, Manage and Share Information about Emergencies. † First Monday 7. 11 (2002) Tufton, Chris. â€Å"Courting Disasters. † Jamaica Cleaner 23 Oct. 2005.

disease essays

disease essays Nobody knows how long there have been people living in the southern part of the African mainland. Experts dates foundings of irontools in the Swaziland to the 4th century. Sailors who were shipwrecked outside the coast of South-Africa had contact with people who earned their living by farming and cattlebreeding. Later on when the Europeans arrived to South-Africa, they found a people on the east coast of Natal who called themselves" A ma zulu". These people were tall and very atleticly build, they could take great effort in both hunting and war and their knowledge to the nature was incredable. The Zulu tribe was once one of South-Africas biggest and most powerful tribes and they managed to stand up against the British until they lost the Zulu war in 1897. The tribes defece system was wery simmular to the system we have in Norway today. The troops were devided into regiments according to their age. And they got military training in diffrent parts of the country, just as we do in Norway today. The Zulues want to keep their tradition and identity alive, but they have a lot to struggle against. The lack of land and the demands from the whites way of life has disturbed their old way of living based on cattlebreeding and farming. The majority of the Zulues today live in the villages near by the mines and the cities where they have their work, others work on farms owned by whites. The zulu society has lost a lot of its stability. But one thing they havent lost is the solidarity to their fellow tribe members, and they are all very keen on maintaining their old cultur, inheritated threw The Zulues are traditionally polygame. They live on farms in huts made of grass and each and every wife has one or two of the huts, one to sleep in an the other one for daily doings. But the women havent only got their own cabins, they`ve got their own corn storage and their own fields too. But snice th...

Behavior and Classroom Management in Special Education

Behavior and Classroom Management in Special Education Behavior is one of the greatest challenges a special education teacher faces. This is especially true when students receiving special education services are in inclusive classrooms. There are a number of strategies that teachers- both special and general education- can employ to help with these situations. We will begin by looking at ways to provide structure, move on to addressing behavior in general, and look at structured interventions as prescribed by federal law. Classroom Management The most effective way to deal with difficult behavior is to prevent it. It really is as simple as that, but thats also sometimes easier to say than to put into practice in real life. Preventing bad behavior means creating a classroom environment that reinforces positive behavior. At the same time, you want to stimulate attention and imagination  and make your expectations clear to the students. To start, you can create a comprehensive classroom management plan. Beyond establishing rules, this plan will help you institute classroom routines, develop strategies to keep students organized and implement Positive Behavior Support systems. Behavior Management Strategies Before you have to put a Functional Behavior Analysis (FBA)  and Behavior Intervention Plan (BIP) in place, there are other strategies you can try. These will help refocus behavior and avoid those higher, and more official, levels of intervention. First of all, as a teacher, its important that you understand the potential behavioral and emotional disorders children in your classroom may be dealing with. These may include psychiatric disorders or behavioral disabilities and each student will come to class with their own needs. Then, we also need to define what inappropriate behavior is. This helps us understand why a student may be acting out the way she has in the past. It also gives us guidance in properly confronting these actions. With this background, behavior management becomes part of classroom management. Here, you can begin to implement strategies to support a positive learning environment. This may include behavior contracts between yourself, the student, and their parents. It could also involve rewards for positive behavior. For example, many teachers use interactive tools like the Token Economy to recognize good behavior in the classroom. These point systems can be customized to fit the individual needs of your students and classroom. Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a research-based therapeutic system based on Behaviorism (the science of behavior), which was first defined by B.F. Skinner. It has been proven to be successful in managing and changing problematic behavior. ABA also provides instruction in functional and life skills, as well as academic programming. Individual Education Plans (IEP) An Individual Education Plan (IEP) is a way to organize your thoughts in a formal manner regarding a childs behavior. This can be shared with the IEP team, parents, other teachers, and school administration. The goals outlined in an IEP should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and have a timeframe (SMART). All of this helps keep everyone on track and gives your student a very detailed sense of what is expected of them. If the IEP is not working, then you might need to resort to the formal FBA or BIP. Yet, teachers often find that with earlier intervention, the right combination of tools, and a positive classroom environment, these measures can be avoided.

Eurasian Badger Facts

Eurasian Badger Facts The Eurasian badger or European badger (Meles meles) is a social, omnivorous mammal that resides in woodlands, pastures, suburbs, and urban parks throughout most of Europe and Asia. In Europe, the badgers are also known by several common names including brock, pate, grey, and bawson. Fast Facts: Eurasian Badger Scientific Name: Meles melesCommon Name(s): Eurasian badger, European badger, Asian badger. In Europe: brock, pate, grey, and bawsonBasic Animal Group: Mammal  Ã‚  Size: 22–35 inches longWeight: Females weigh between 14.5–30 pounds, males are 20–36 poundsLifespan: 6 yearsDiet:  OmnivoreHabitat: Europe and AsiaPopulation: Worldwide unknown; range size variesConservation Status: Least Concern; considered Endangered in Albania Description Eurasian badgers are powerfully built mammals that have a short, fat body and short, sturdy legs well suited for digging. The bottoms of their feet are naked and they have strong claws that are elongated with a sharp end honed for excavation. They have small eyes, small ears, and a long head. Their skulls are heavy and elongated and they have oval braincases. Their fur is grayish and they have black faces with white stripes on the top and sides of their face and neck. Badgers range in body length from about 22–35 inches, with a tail extending another 4.5 to 20 inches. Females weigh between 14.5–30 pounds, while males weigh from 20–36 pounds. DamianKuzdak/Getty Images Species Once thought to be a single species, some researchers split them into subspecies which are similar in appearance and behavior but have different ranges. Common badger (Meles meles meles)Cretan badger (Meles meles arcalus)Trans Caucasian badger (Meles meles canascens)Kizlyar badger (Meles meles heptneri)Iberian badger (Meles meles marianensis)Norwegian badger (Meles meles milleri)Rhodes badger (Meles meles rhodius)Fergana badger (Meles meles severzovi) Habitat European badgers are found throughout the British Isles, Europe, and Scandinavia. Their range extends westward to the Volga River. West of the Volga River, Asian badgers are common. They are most often studied as a group and referred to in the scholarly press simply as Eurasian badgers. Eurasian badgers prefer deciduous woods with clearings or open pastureland with small patches of wood. They are also found in a wide variety of temperate ecosystems, mixed and coniferous woodlands, scrub, suburban areas, and urban parks. Subspecies are found in mountains, plains, and even semi-deserts. Territory ranges vary depending on food availability and so reliable population estimates are not currently available. Diet Eurasian badgers are omnivores. They are opportunistic foragers that consume fruit, nuts, bulbs, tubers, acorns and cereal crops, as well as invertebrates such as earthworms, insects, snails, and slugs. They also eat small mammals such as rats, voles, shrews, moles, mice, and rabbits. When available, they will also feed on small reptiles and amphibians such as frogs, snakes, newts, and lizards. The badgers forage alone even when involved in a social group: Eurasian badgers live in territorial, mixed-sex social colonies each sharing a communal burrow. The animals are nocturnal and spend much of the daylight hours hidden away in their setts. Behavior Eurasian badgers are social animals that live in colonies of six to 20 individuals made up of multiple males, breeding and non-breeding females, and cubs. The groups create and reside in a network of underground tunnels known as a sett or den. Some setts are large enough to house more than a dozen badgers and can have tunnels that are as much as 1,000 feet long with numerous openings to the surface. Badgers excavate their setts in well-drained soils that are easy to dig in. The tunnels are 2–6 feet beneath the surface of the ground and the badgers often construct large chambers where they sleep or care for their young. When digging tunnels, badgers create large mounds outside the entryway. By placing entrances on slopes, the badgers can push the debris down the hill and away from the opening. They do the same when cleaning out their sett, pushing bedding material and other waste out and away from the opening. Groups of badgers are known as colonies and each colony may construct and use several different setts throughout their territory. The setts they use depend on the distribution of food resources within their territory as well as whether or not it is breeding season and young are to be raised in the sett. Setts or sections of setts not used by badgers are sometimes occupied by other animals such as foxes or rabbits. Like bears, badgers experience winter sleep during which time they become less active but their body temperature does not drop as it does in full hibernation. In late summer, badgers begin to gain the weight they will need to power themselves through their winter sleep period. Reproduction Eurasian badgers are polygynous, meaning males mate with multiple females but females only mate with one male. Within social groups, however, only the dominant male and female mate. Dominant females are known to kill cubs from non-dominant females in the social group. Badgers can mate year round, but most commonly in late winter through early spring and late summer through early fall. At times, males expand their territories to cross-breed with extra-group females. Gestation lasts between 9 and 21 months and litters produce 1–6 cubs at a time; females are fertile during pregnancy so multiple paternity births are common. Cubs first emerge from their dens after eight to 10 weeks and are weaned by the age of 2.5 months. They are sexually mature at about a year old, and their lifespans are typically six years, although the oldest known wild badger lived to 14. TonyBaggett/Getty Images Threats European badgers do not have many predators or natural enemies. In some parts of their range, wolves, dogs, and lynxes pose a threat. In some areas, Eurasian badgers live side-by-side other predators such as foxes without conflict. The IUCN Red List comments that since Eurasian badgers occur in many protected areas and there are high densities found in anthropogenic habitats in large parts of its range, the Eurasian badger is highly unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing even as Near Threatened. They are targeted for hunting for food or persecuted as a pest, and in some urban and suburban areas, the population has decreased. Although estimates are unreliable, researchers believe the overall population has been increasing throughout their range since the 1980s. During the mid-1990s, the Badgers were classed Lower Risk/least concern (LR/LC) because of elevated occurrence of rabies and tuberculosis, although those diseases have since decreased substantially. Sources Carpenter, Petra J., et al. Mating System of the Eurasian Badger. Molecular Ecology 14.1 (2005): 273-84. Print.,Meles Meles, in a High Density Populationda Silva, Jack, David W. MacDonald, and Peter G. H. Evans. Net Costs of Group Living in a Solitary Forager, the Eurasian Badger (Meles meles). Behavioral Ecology 5.2 (1994): 151-58. Print.Frantz, A. C., et al. Reliable Microsatellite Genotyping of the Eurasian Badger (Meles Meles) Using Faecal DNA. Molecular Ecology 12.6 (2003): 1649-61. Print.Frantz, Alain C., et al. Estimating Population Size by Genotyping Remotely Plucked Hair: The Eurasian Badger. Journal of Applied Ecology 41.5 (2004): 985-95. Print.Kranz, A., A.V. Abramov, J. Herrero, and T. Maran. Meles meles. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.T29673A45203002, 2016.  Wang, A. Eurasian badgers (Meles meles). Animal Diversity, 2011.

Peer review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 11

Peer review - Essay Example These factors as stated include; low interest loans, ease for access to loans, Competitors advertising, introduction of new competitive models and competitor’s dealers discounts (Cooper & Schindler, 2014). This hypothesis also has some significant weaknesses. The hypothesis does not give a definite correlation coefficient for this question. The importance of a correlation coefficient is to show the strength of a hypothesis. It is usually a number between -1 and +1. If it is close to +1 then it shows a strong hypothesis. However, if it is close to -1, it represents a weak hypothesis. In addition, enough statistics on the number and percentage through which sales increased as a result of the increase in per capital income is not provided. A sales hypothesis also calls for more charts analysis while this hypothesis does not provide. (Robert, 2007). According to the biblical teaching, Christians are called upon to put effort in every activity they undertake. The Bible calls for perfection in the activities that Christians undertake. Proverbs 21:5 emphasizes that the plans of diligent leads to plenty, while everyone that has hasty only leads to

Discussion Board 3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Discussion Board 3 - Essay Example st come to its senses (pun intended) and realize that a significant section of the population has either been involved with the prison/parole system†¦ or will be. Because of this, the stigma attached to incarceration does not carry the same irrational prejudice it once had. Indeed, not only does the prison population have a large enough community to qualify for it’s own statehood - they make up a significant of the â€Å"general stir† (i.e., outside society). In all to many cases, there is little difference between the population inside the prison and the one found outside the walls. Now this is not to say there are not individuals requiring lifetime incarceration. However, with the increase of mandatory sentencing as a deterrent for many crimes, the prison population has received an influx of inmates classified as low-risk or non-violent. Craig Haney, Ph.D., and Philip Zimbardo, Ph.D. (1998) note that a fourth of these nonviolent offenders return to jail fro a second offense - indicating that prison serves as a school for violent and criminal behavior rather than a deterrent. The 1994 analysis of the Department of Justice came to similar conclusions: â€Å"the amount of time inmates serve in prison does not increase or decrease the likelihood of recidivism, whether recidivism is measured as parole revocation, re-arrest, reconviction, or return to prison." Thus, it takes a short leap of logic to realize that fro many of these offenders, prison sentences are only perpetuating the problem. The only thing accomplished by detaining a minor offender is training them to be a more calloused criminal. These lessons are being provided free of charge and are coming from the same pockets that provide public school - the public itself. In many cases, the prisoners earn money as well via some work program, all while living on free room and board. The solution seems obvious: a sensible purging of the prison system on a case be case basis. Although though must e used

Project risk management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Project risk management - Essay Example Projects are regard the planning and execution of beneficial transform. This positive change may engage the creation of a preferred physical asset or some less physical organizational change. In either case, the quest of opportunities is an intrinsic central concern. There are various approaches used to tackle project risk management. In this paper, we analyze the key features of Performance Uncertainty Management Process (PUMP) approach. PUMPs have designed broad or specific processes facilitate its functions. One of its key features is iterative nature. Performance uncertainty management processes’ (PUMPs), designed to elucidate uncertainty, opportunity and threat in all types of organizations and projects. The importance is the strategy shaping phase of the venture lifecycle, precisely shaping the expansion of project execution and delivery approach plans. This feature allows it to do a cyclic process of the risk management (Barkley, 2004). It process iteration organization and has a plan-criterion structure comprehension. It has four broad phases that ensures the implementation of the twelve stages. A twelve plan categorization of the lifecycle offers a framework for contemplating the purpose of a PUMP at dissimilar stages in the lifecycle, when unlike performance contemplations operate. The fundamental PUMP offers a structure for uncertainty control, but the defined purpose, scope and factor of analysis done in each PUMP stage will rely upon the function context. There is no one outstanding approach for all circumstances. The essential phase of the basic Performance Uncertainty Management Process is concerning acclimatizing the basic procedure to the precise project context and lifecycle phase of instantaneous interest. The PUMP approach deals with the identification of all applicable sources of uncertainty and reaction options in a tightly coupled way; in part since unidentified reactions are a basis of vagueness. In PUMP approach, consequences or effects observed in qualitative stipulations are element of the bond between responses and sources. For instance, some sources entail potential consequences that require a useful reactive response, but others require an efficient preventative response, and others require both. Considering projects allied to a single deliverable asset or institutional change, a comprehensive description of the asset/transform lifecycle and the actions involved in each phase of the lifecycle is obtainable (Kendrick, 2009). Uncertainty around and in a project account, utilizes a 12 step nominal structure that distinguished variant features of the four essential life cycle phases of conceptualization, execution, planning and delivery also utilization of the change or asset delivered by a venture. This lifecycle supposed structure offers a structure in which indecision management can be organized in any suitable framework for fastidious contexts. An instant insinuation is that the extent and nature of th e procedure used to administer project uncertainty must be driven to areas where the lifecycle is situated, to efficiently address the questions pertinent to that stage. In conceptualization phase, the idea of the project is shaped also gateway for the project implementation is set. Shaping involve making best decisions on how to proceed with project

The role of arbitration in settling foreign invetment related Dissertation

The role of arbitration in settling foreign invetment related disputes' - Dissertation Example It will be argued that despite the lack of an international convention or codification of investor-state FDI law, customary law and the doctrine of fair and equitable treatment as interpreted by arbitrators has inspired sufficient confidence in arbitration and as such, FDI. It will therefore be argued that the role of arbitration as a method of resolving ISA in FDI relate disputes is very important to promulgating FDIs. To substantiate this hypothesis, this dissertation will examine and analyse the rapid growth of BITs, the fair and equitable treatment clause and the arbitration clauses typically included in BITs. An analysis of resulting arbitration awards will also be conducted. The provision for institutional and ad hoc ISA in BITs will also be examined. Contents Abstract 2 Contents 3 Introduction 5 I.Research Questions 7 II.Statement of the Problem 8 III.Significance of the Study 10 IV.Aims and Objectives 11 V.Research Methods and Designs 11 A.Research Methods 11 B.Research Desig n 13 Chapter Two 14 The Investor State Relationship 14 Introduction 14 I.Investor/State Relationships 14 A.Definition of Foreign Direct Investment 14 B.FDI and Investor-State Relations 17 II.Issues Arising in FDIs Between the Foreign Investor and the Host State 20 A.The Risk of Expropriation Without Compensation 21 B.The Need For Fair and Equitable Treatment 23 C.The Risk of the Host State Changing the Regulatory Framework Once The Investment is Made. 26 D.The Risk of Contract Breaches and Breaches of Other Promises and Violations of International Law 27 III.International Investment Treaties 28 A.Compensation 30 B.Currency Control 31 C.Non-discriminatory Treatment 32 D.Full Protection and Security 35 E.Umbrella Clauses 36 F.Minimum Treatment Standard 37 G.Fair and Equitable Treatment 39 Conclusion 42 Chapter Three 44 Investor-State Arbitration: Substantive and Procedural Laws 44 I.Investor/State Arbitration: The Washington Convention 44 II. Arbitration Decisions 49 Conclusion 60 Cha pter Summary 61 Chapter Four 62 Findings/Conclusion 62 Findings 62 Conclusion 65 Bibliography 67 Chapter One Introduction Over the past 20 years, the number of FDI treaties have tripled.3 Since the 1970s the rate of growth of FDIs has eclipsed that of the growth of worldwide exports by double. This trend continues today.4 The proliferation of FDI is attributed to the â€Å"widespread liberalization of the FDI regulatory framework† as well as advancement in information technologies and the intensification of business competition. A majority of states have implemented institutional and policy reforms that appeal to FDI and have improved treatment and protection standards. These changes reflect the popular view that FDIs are associated with the introduction of capital, skills, technology, employment and access to markets. The main objective in implementing foreign investment treaties, particularly BITs is to let investors know that their investments will have the benefit of lega l protection and to encourage the inflows from FDIs.5 By year end 2010, the number investor/state arbitration (ISA)

An auteur and The Rear Window film Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

An auteur and The Rear Window film - Assignment Example What is meant by the term genre? What genre is Rear Window and what recognizable elements are present in the film that help to identify its generic identity? A genre is any category that literature and art in general falls in. This takes into consideration the content, technique employed, style and the presentation of the subject matter. Music for instance, has different genre. This means that every type of music has a certain genre that it falls in. Rear Window film falls in drama film type of genre. This is because of a number of reasons. Firstly, there is intense display of emotions. The story is also based on real life issues that take place in everyday live activities. A drama film majorly focuses on such; emotions and being based on real life issues. 3. What are the principal themes in Rear Window? In other words, what is the film about? Bear in mind that this is a different issue than thinking about what happens in the film (though they are closely related of course). What are the bigger ideas to which the film is pointing us? There is the theme of conflict where there is some disagreement between Jefferies and himself, Jefferies and the neighbours and Jefferies and Stella. Jefferies is not ready to agree to what happened to him, being confined in a wheel chair. He is also not comfortable with what is happening to his neighbours. As a result, he sits to watch them, something that is making him to have a negative attitude towards marriage, leading to the second theme.

Aggregational role of voting and majority rule Essay

Aggregational role of voting and majority rule - Essay Example Majority voting is a process that does not consider consensus during election. Its ideology is the majority number of people have a final say to determine the decision to be undertaken. Majority voting does not allow for compromise. This is a useful factor in decision making for such matters as those of technicality than just face reasons fuelled by emotion, impulse and personal interest (Emerson 1994). Majority rule inspires alliance building. It encourages challenges amongst these groups and brings out the best qualities in the final choice. This is because competition among coalition pushes for the most refined options compared to its alternatives. Challenges as these are useful in avoidance of situations where there is ‘tyranny by the majority’ to pursue their own personal interests. Alliances formed by the minority have been known to watch dog over the welfare of the society in frameworks like this. The election process requires that the community be informed on alt ernative sets than all other individuals. Final decisions made are resourceful and useful for incorporating collective ideas of aggregate persons. In economics, majority voting is especially popular for market creation. When consumers decide to cast currency votes for an item of consumption businesses are forced to produce more of it in order to make profit. The decision on such goods by consumers reflect their preference on products. Majority rule voting however, only applies in a few of market products. This is because it is not applicable where the market item in question is a public good due to the free riding problem. While majority rule is often associated with democracy, plurality is concerned with the large numbers as a sample of the population’s interest. Plurality considers ideas of the most population without taking into account the overall effect proportionately. Majority rule is therefore a creation of the population’s interest compared against standards o f quality so that more than half of the population agrees to the idea voted. Plurality on the other hand is a matter of the numbers whether less than half or more, this overlooks non-voters. Majority rule motivates the entire population to take part in a voting process and solidifies the final decision. To benefit from final decisions in majority rule, parties agree on the best outcome, whether the outcomes are favourable or not as long as they are outvoted. Majority rule does not provide an equilibrium decision. The concept of voting has inspired models with mathematical explanations to the given systems involved in the elections (Tideman, N 2006). In most situations, voters identify with characteristic qualities of the options in the set to be selected. When aggregate role in decision-making may de-motivate the will to participate in decision making for most of the members of the minority and the majority group, the final decision may as well be motivated by factors other than con tribution and the numbers. This will include reflective concepts of the parties voting on real need to deal with facts than just numbers during decision-making. Most of the population will therefore end up making a sober and weighted decision. Majority rule addresses contrasting preferences and often results in an arbitrary choice. This gives an advantage to democratic administrative policies in governance. Democratic Rule relates to the majority rule in a paternalistic manner but has implications that could lead to instability; therefore, the democratic governance is useful when it undertakes the least (Nitzan, S.2010). This again gives the advantage of ruling to the majority cause. Democracy should restrain majority

An auteur and The Rear Window film Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

An auteur and The Rear Window film - Assignment Example What is meant by the term genre? What genre is Rear Window and what recognizable elements are present in the film that help to identify its generic identity? A genre is any category that literature and art in general falls in. This takes into consideration the content, technique employed, style and the presentation of the subject matter. Music for instance, has different genre. This means that every type of music has a certain genre that it falls in. Rear Window film falls in drama film type of genre. This is because of a number of reasons. Firstly, there is intense display of emotions. The story is also based on real life issues that take place in everyday live activities. A drama film majorly focuses on such; emotions and being based on real life issues. 3. What are the principal themes in Rear Window? In other words, what is the film about? Bear in mind that this is a different issue than thinking about what happens in the film (though they are closely related of course). What are the bigger ideas to which the film is pointing us? There is the theme of conflict where there is some disagreement between Jefferies and himself, Jefferies and the neighbours and Jefferies and Stella. Jefferies is not ready to agree to what happened to him, being confined in a wheel chair. He is also not comfortable with what is happening to his neighbours. As a result, he sits to watch them, something that is making him to have a negative attitude towards marriage, leading to the second theme.

Comparative essay between England and Brazil Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Comparative between England and Brazil - Essay Example Brazil consists of 27 federal units, 26 states, and one federal state (Levine 145-148). Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world and accounts for one third of the world population. It has an area of 8511965 sq km covering nearly half of South America with its capital being Brasilia. It was named after the dye-wood found there. It borders every nation of the continent except Chile and Ecuador. Brazil is divided into plateaus in the south and the Amazon River basin to the north. According to Fausto (76) analyzed and found out that a study done on 2011 reported that Brazil has a population of 205,716,890 people. Brazil has its main cities as; Sao Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, Belo Horizonte, Recife, and Porto Alegre. Brazil is the only Latin American country that derives its culture and language from Portugal. Brazil was one of the only three modern states in the Americas to have its own indigenous monarchy for a period of almost 90 years. (Meade 90-93). Portugal earnestly tr ied to re-impose colonial rule but Brazil was declared independent on 7th September 1822 by the prince thus becoming Pedro I the Emperor of Brazil (Viotti da Costa 52). The nation was ruled by a series of military dictatorships until a revolt that allowed for a gradual return to stability under the civilian presidents (Meade 132). In 1964 to 1984 the military governments strongly encouraged foreign so as to encourage economic growth. After the military coup in 1964, Brazil was ruled by the military again for several years. In 1985 the first civilian president Neves was elected since 1964 bringing a nationwide wave of optimism. Color became the president after winning the 1989 elections but he was impeached by the congress because of corruption scandal and later resigned (Viotti da Costa 112-113). According to Fausto (158-160) asserts that in January 1999 the Asian economic crisis spread to Brazil and the economy remained sluggish throughout to 2001. Dilma Rouseff was elected as pres ident and assumed office in 1st January 2011 and is the sitting president up to date. Background history of England England is the most populous nation of the United Kingdom. It accounts for 84 percent of the combined total population. It has 54 million people and its inhabitants are English or British people. Some genetic evidence shows that the 75%-95% have descended in the paternal line from the prehistoric settlers who were originally from Iberian Peninsula. The spoken language is English. The most widely spread religion is Christianity and as per today 59% of the population identify Christianity (Raumer 67-68). The former capital of England was Winchester until it was replaced by London in 1066. Currently, London is the largest metropolitan area in the UK and also the largest urban zone in the European Union region. During the reign of Emperor Claudius, the Romans invaded Britain in AD 43 subsequently conquering much of Britain the area being incorporated into the Roman Empire as the Britannia (Eccleshare 265-270). The basic political system in England is a parliamentary system and a constitutional monarchy. Before the joining of Scotland and English to form the Kingdom of Great Britain, it was ruled by the monarch and the parliament of England. In the UK 2010 general elections the Conservative Party won the absolute majority in 532 contested seats, 61 more seats more than all the other parties combined. According to Eccleshare (45) argues

Effect of Adolescent Cannabis Use on Brain Functions

Effect of Adolescent Cannabis Use on Brain Functions Cannabis Use During Adolescence: A Review of Impacts on Brain Functions and Associated Outcomes Recent years have seen a dramatic increase in the social acceptability of cannabis usage in the United States, with several states having already legalized recreational use of the substance and several more projected to do so within the next several years (Leyton, 2016).   Concurrently, there has been an increase in the amount of adolescents who report using cannabis, with recent data indicating that 39% of high school seniors report using cannabis within the past year and 6-7% reporting daily or near daily cannabis use (Johnston & O’Malley, 2015).   Despite increasing utilization of cannabis products for pain management and other ailments (Hwang & Clarke, 2016), some in the scientific community have expressed concern about the potential ramifications of recreational legalization of cannabis.   Chief amongst these concerns is the idea that adolescents will have very easy access to increasingly potent cannabis and synthetic cannabis products (Sobesky & Gorgens, 2016), as a great deal of research has indicated that the use of cannabis poses several risks specific to individuals in the adolescent age range (see Levine, Clemenza, Rynn, & Lieberman, 2017).   This paper will summarize the research examining the impact of cannabis use on the developing adolescent brain and potential associated outcomes, particularly in the areas of cognition/executive function, anxiety and depression, psychotic disorders, and future substance use/dependence.   The Adolescent Brain To understand the impact of cannabis use on the developing adolescent brain, it is first necessary to understand the changes taking place in the brain during this developmental period.   Not surprisingly, the period of adolescence is a time of tremendous change in the circuitry of the brain.   According to Arain et al. (2013), there is a significant amount of neuronal plasticity in the brain during adolescence, meaning the â€Å"wiring† of the brain is extremely adaptable to learning and experience.   Such plasticity, particularly in the prefrontal cortex, lends itself to difficulty thinking rationally and critically, often leading to the impulsive decision-making that is characteristic of the adolescent years.   In addition, the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis, the system responsible for regulating human responses to stress, also undergoes significant development during the period of adolescence.   Within this system, the amount and duration of adrenocorti cotropic hormone (ACTH) and glucocorticoids released in response to stress increase significantly as compared to other life periods (Romeo, 2013).   Shortly before puberty, a â€Å"surge† of synaptogenesis and neuronal growth occurs in which grey matter in the brain thickens substantially.   From this point throughout the period of adolescence, the brain is continually rewired through dendritic pruning and increased myelination of synapses, particularly in the prefrontal cortex (Arain et al., 2013; Lubman, Bonomo, & Yucel, 2007).   In addition, white matter increases are seen in the corpus callosum (Arain et al., 2013).   Taken together, these changes increase the efficiency of communication within the brain, allowing for the eventual development of more complex cognitive functioning, including improved impulse control, operational thinking, and working memory (Hart, 2007; Lubman et al., 2007).   In addition to the constant rewiring of brain circuitry that occurs during adolescence, the levels of three neurotransmitters – dopamine, serotonin, and melatonin – change during the adolescent period (Arain et al., 2013).   According to Dahl (2003), dopamine and serotonin levels decrease during adolescence, resulting in emotional dysregulation, mood disruptions, and difficulties with impulse control.   Melatonin levels, on the other hand, increase, which in turn increases the amount of sleep that adolescents need to be fully â€Å"re-charged.†Ã‚     Given the massive changes that are occurring in the brain during the period of adolescence, it is a time in which the brain is especially susceptible to the use of substances, (Lubman et al., 2007) including cannabis.   Cannabis’ Action in the Brain Before discussing the specific impacts of cannabis use on the adolescent brain, it is important to understand how cannabis acts in the brain in general.   First, the brain has an endogenous cannabinoid system (endocannabinoid system) made up of the ligands anandamide and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol (2-AG) and cannabinoid receptors known as CB1 and CB2 receptors (Moreira & Lutz, 2008).   CB1 receptors are located throughout the brain, but are particularly populous in the front region of the cerebral cortex, the basal ganglia, the cerebellum, the hypothalamus, the anterior cingulate cortex, and the hippocampus; CB2 receptors are generally found throughout the body’s immune system (Hill et al., 2010; Iversen, 2004).   The endocannabinoid system plays a role in a number of processes, including the regulation of the HPA axis stress response (Hill et al., 2010; Lee & Gorzalka, 2015), neural plasticity, and learning and memory (Lu et al., 2008).   According to Iversen (2004), the psychoactive component in cannabis is Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).   THC, as well as increasingly popular synthetic cannabinoids, act as agonists on CB1 cannabinoid receptors in the brain.   Because CB1 receptors are generally presynaptic rather than postsynaptic, cannabinoids control the release of certain neurotransmitters, including acetylcholine, L-glutamate, ÃŽ ³-aminobutyric acid (GABA), noradrenaline (norepinephrine), dopamine, and 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT).   The use of exogenous cannabinoids, such as marijuana or synthetic marijuana products, leads to an unnaturally long-lasting activation of CB1 receptors, ultimately inhibiting the release of the aforementioned neurotransmitters in selected areas of the brain (Iversen, 2004).   In addition to its impact on CB1 receptors and associated neurotransmitters, THC also appears to trigger the firing of dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area of the brain and the nucleus accumbens – areas of the brain that are heavily implicated in the brain’s reward circuit associated with drug use.   This effect is also seen with heroin, cocaine, amphetamines, and nicotine, suggesting that THC may also act on the opioid receptor system within the brain (Iversen, 2004). Impact on Cognition and Executive Function Tasks The literature has focused on several larger areas of impact regarding cannabis use during adolescence, one of these being the potential impacts on cognition and tasks of executive function.   As previously mentioned, the brain undergoes a significant amount of change in the adolescent years, including the frequent re-wiring of neural connections through neural pruning processes, particularly in the prefrontal cortex.   According to Filbey, McQueeny, DeWitt, and Mishra (2015), cannabis use during adolescence disrupts this normal pruning process through its modulation of neurotransmitters and inhibition of microglial processes.   This results in abnormal connectivity within the brain, including a decrease in white matter volume and integrity (Gruber, Dahlgren, Sagar, Gonenc, & Lukas, 2014; Jacobus et al., 2009). Such changes result in a number of cognitive impacts, including increased impulsivity, poorer reaction times, and increased errors on executive function tasks (e.g., planning, organization, self-regulation, etc.) (Becker, Wagner, Gouzoulis-Mayfrank, Spuentrup, & Daumann, 2010; Gruber et al., 2014).   Indeed, studies have indicated that individuals who begin marijuana use in early adolescence are at an increased risk for developing deficits in attention (Ehrenreich et al., 1999) and visual processing (Tapert, Granholm, Leedy, & Brown, 2002), and exhibit a decreased full scale IQ and verbal IQ in adulthood (Meier et al., 2012).   Memory also appears to be affected by adolescent-onset cannabis use (Tait, Mackinnon, & Christensen, 2011), likely via its impact on the hippocampus – a part of the brain heavily implicated in memory functions.   Animal research has shown that the hippocampus is affected by cannabis use especially during the period of adolescence.   In rats, adolescent exposure to cannabis impacted the microstructure of the hippocampus as well as abnormalities in the way that proteins are expressed in the hippocampus (Quinn et al., 2008).   Specifically, it appears that exogenous cannabinoids bind to CB1 receptors and inhibit the release of glutamate, thus contributing to deficits in short-term memory (Hart, 2007) and negatively impacting performance on memory-related tasks (see Levine et al., 2017).   Some animal studies indicate that lower levels of cannabis use (those most reflective of the actual amount that adolescents use) are not predictive of long-lasting hippocampal changes.   However, because current cannabis products are continuing to increase in potency (Levine et al., 2017), hippocampal changes and subsequent memory problems are topics of concern, especially with regard to adolescent users of cannabis.   Working memory also appears to be impacted by cannabis use, particularly in individuals that began using cannabis before the age of sixteen.   Becker et al. (2010) used functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine performance on a working memory task in individuals who began using cannabis before age sixteen (early-onset) as compared to individuals who began using cannabis after the age of sixteen (later-onset).   Results of this study indicated that early-onset cannabis users exhibited increased cortical activity in the parietal lobe as compared to later-onset cannabis users.   The researchers concluded that this increased cortical activity indicated decreased cortical efficiency in response to challenging working memory-related tasks in early-onset, but not later-onset, cannabis users (Becker et al., 2010).   Such findings are consistent with a number of studies indicating that an earlier age of onset of cannabis use is associated with greater risk of negative impacts on cognitive functioning during adulthood (Ehrenreich et al., 1999; Fontes et al., 2011; Meier et al., 2012; Pope et al., 2003).   Impact on the Development of Anxiety and Depression Several studies indicate a connection between adolescent-onset cannabis use and the development of both anxiety and depressive disorders (e.g., Brook, Rosen, & Brook, 2001; Degenhardt et al., 2013; Fairman, 2015; Hayatbakhsh et al., 2007; Patton et al., 2002; van Laar, van Dorsselaer, Monshouwer, & de Graaf, 2007).   Though past researchers have speculated about the directionality of this relationship, studies have consistently indicated that adolescent-onset depression is not predictive of later cannabis use (e.g., Degenhardt, Hall, & Lynskey, 2003; Moore et al., 2007; Womack, Shaw, Weaver, & Forbes, 2016), negating the idea that depressive and/or anxiety symptoms lead to engagement in cannabis use as a method of symptom relief.   Instead, such findings promote the idea that cannabis use during adolescence, in combination with other potential risk factors, increase the risk for the development of anxiety and depressive symptoms in adulthood (Levine et al., 2017).   As with the cognitive changes discussed in the previous section of this paper, it is early-onset use of cannabis that appears to be riskiest with regard to the development of future anxiety and depressive symptoms (Hayatbakhsh et al., 2007; Patton et al., 2002).   In an interesting study by Spechler et al. (2015), fMRIs were used to examine activity in the amygdalas of adolescent users of cannabis.   The researchers showed participants images of both angry and neutral faces, a well-known test of amygdala activity and a well-regarded index of emotional processing.   Results of this study indicated that compared to the control group, adolescent cannabis users exhibited increased amygdala activity in response to the images of angry faces whereas the control group showed the same amount of amygdala activity when shown images of neutral faces.   Spechler et al. (2015) concluded that adolescent cannabis use is associated with increased hypersensitivity to negative affect.   However, in this case, the directionality of the relationship is unclear: it is possible that the sensitivity of the amygdala pre-dated the cannabis use and the cannabis use was engaged in due to its anxiolytic effect.   Conversely, it is possible that cannabis use led to increased sensitivity in the amygdala.   Either way, it appears that adolescent cannabis users are overly sensitive to negative affect and the potential threat that accompanies it, which may explain the increased incidence of depressive and anxious symptomatology in this population.    There are several potential neurobiological mechanisms explaining the relationship between adolescent cannabis use and the development of anxiety and depressive symptoms.   One possibility is the impact of exogenous cannabinoids on the HPA axis system.   The endocannabinoid system regulates the responsivity of the HPA axis, which, as previously mentioned, undergoes significant development during the adolescent years (Hill et al., 2010; Lee & Gorzalka, 2015; Romeo, 2013).   Studies with both human and rodent subjects have indicated that the use of exogenous cannabinoids during adolescence has the capacity to alter HPA axis stress responses, thus impacting emotionality and the development of anxiety-related symptoms (Lee & Gorzalka, 2015).   Lovelace et al. (2015) discuss another neurobiological mechanism that may underlie the relationship between adolescent cannabis use and the development of anxiety and depression.   In a rodent study, these researchers examined maladaptations in the prefrontal cortex due to cannabis use by looking at presynaptic plasticity at glutamatergic synapses in adolescent rats.   The results indicated that exposure to exogenous cannabinoids during adolescence led to over-activation of CB1 receptors, which led to permanent changes in synapses in the prefrontal cortex.   Overall, mice exposed to exogenous cannabinoids during adolescence showed a loss of presynaptic plasticity, which impacts the brain’s ability to adapt to changing environments and thus may contribute to an increased vulnerability of psychopathology during adulthood (Lovelace et al., 2015).   In an interesting rodent study conducted by Rubino et al. (2008), researchers found that exposure to THC during adolescence was associated with decreased density and function of CB1 receptors in the ventral tegmental area, the nucleus accumbens, and the amygdala.   These areas of the brain are implicated in emotional processing and reward and are thus implicated in the development of depressive symptomatology.   The behavior of the rats in this study also mirrored depressive symptomatology.   Specifically, rats exposed to THC during adolescence exhibited both â€Å"behavioral despair† (which the researchers defined as time the rats were immobile) and anhedonia (as measured through decreased consumption of sucrose).   Taken together, it appears that several neurobiological mechanisms are at play in the connection between adolescent cannabis use and the development of anxiety and depressive symptoms.   Impact on the Development of Psychotic Disorders A substantial body of literature has indicated a connection between the use of cannabis during adolescence and the later development of psychotic disorders (e.g., van Os et al., 2002; Henquet et al., 2005; Stefanis et al., 2004).   This is especially true for individuals who are already genetically predisposed to develop psychotic disorders (Henquet et al., 2005) though the connection has also been found in individuals that do not have this genetic predisposition (van Os et al., 2002).   As with the impact on cognition and on anxiety/depressive symptoms, it appears that early-onset cannabis use (Arseneault et al., 2002; Moore et al., 2007) as well as heavier (i.e. daily or near-daily) use pose the greatest risk for the later development of a psychotic disorder (Moore et al., 2007; van Os et al., 2002). Rubino and Parolaro (2014) discuss the possible neurobiological mechanisms behind the connection between adolescent cannabis use and the development of psychotic disorders.   In general, it appears that the use of exogenous cannabinoids during adolescence disrupts the maturational processes occurring in the brain during this time, especially in the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex – two areas of the brain that are implicated in the psychotic disorder schizophrenia, in particular.   The endocannabinoid system itself undergoes a significant amount of change during the adolescent years; thus, exogenous cannabinoid exposure during this time period has the potential to alter the long-term functionality of CB1 receptors, which then impacts the activity of several neurotransmitters implicated in psychotic symptomatology, especially dopamine (Rubino & Parolaro, 2014). Additionally, being exposed to cannabis during the adolescent period has been shown to disrupt prepulse inhib ition (the ability to accurately perceive and process stimuli) and down-regulate GABAergic activity in the prefrontal cortex – both symptoms commonly seen in individuals with schizophrenia (Morales-Muà ±oz et al., 2014; Zamberletti et al., 2014).  Ã‚   As previously mentioned, individuals who have a genetically predisposed vulnerability to develop psychotic disorders are at an especially high risk to do so if they engage in cannabis use during adolescence (Henquet et al., 2005).   For example, individuals who have a specific variant of the gene for catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT), which breaks down dopamine – the neurotransmitter implicated in schizophrenia – are at a much higher risk for developing the disorder if they used cannabis during adolescence as compared to individuals who do not have that specific variant of the gene for COMT (Caspi et al., 2005).   Another gene that influences the relationship between adolescent cannabis use and psychosis is the ATK1 gene, which affects dopamine breakdown in the striatum.   According to DiForti et al. (2012), cannabis users with a certain variant of the ATK1 gene were seven times more likely to develop psychosis as compared to individuals with this gene variant w ho did not use cannabis.   Clearly, in individuals that already possess these specific genetic variants, cannabis use during adolescence can be the trigger that leads to the expression of these genes and the development of psychotic symptoms and/or disorders.   In addition, adults with psychotic disorders who used cannabis during adolescence are at a greater risk for relapse of psychotic symptoms, poorer adherence to treatment, and increased rates of hospitalization related to their diagnosis (Hunt, Bergen, & Bashir, 2002; Lewis, Tarrier, & Drake, 2005; Wade et al., 2006).   Impact on the Future Development of Substance Use Disorders   Several studies have indicated a link between adolescent cannabis use and the later development of a substance use disorder.   Again, this relationship is especially strong for individuals that engage in cannabis use in early adolescence and who engage in heavy (i.e., daily or near-daily) use (Fergusson, Boden, & Horwood, 2006; Hall & Lynskey, 2005; Stuart & Green, 2008).  Ã‚   Past researchers have speculated upon various explanations for this trend, including the so-called ‘gateway hypothesis.’   In general, the ‘gateway hypothesis’ assumes that individuals who use â€Å"harder† drugs such as heroin and cocaine almost always started their use of substances with using cannabis, and that this link is explicitly causal (Van Gundy & Rebellon, 2010).  Ã‚   This hypothesis is based on research findings indicating that the use of cannabis during adolescence often predates the use of other illicit substances, including heroin, methamphetamines, and cocaine (Fergusson et al., 2006).   Though the causality of this link has been repeatedly questioned in the literature (e.g., Morral, McCaffrey, & Paddock, 2002; Van Gundy & Rebellon, 2010), many researchers have attempted to explain the mechanisms behind the early use of cannabis and the later use of other substances and/or development of a substance use disorder.   There are countless potential psychosocial explanations for this connection (e.g., peer pressure, propensity toward risk-taking behaviors, availability of substances, etc.); however, for the purposes of this paper, the potential neurobiological mechanisms behind the connection will be discussed. The major possible neurobiological mechanism behind the connection between early cannabis use and the later development of a substance use disorder has to do with the effect of cannabis on the brain’s opioidergic system.   A great deal of animal research has indicated that the endocannabinoid system and the opioidergic system are intricately linked.   For example, Pickel, Chan, Kash, Rodriguez, and Mackie (2004) and Rodriguez, Mackie, and Pickel (2001) found that CB1 receptors and  µ opioid receptors are found on the same neurons in both the striatum and the ventral tegmental area, and Cossu et al. (2001) and Ledent et al. (1999) found that animals without CB1 receptor genes do not self-administer opioids. Drawing upon this clear connection between the endocannabinoid and opioidergic brain systems, Ellgren, Spano, and Hurd (2007) investigated the hypothesis that cannabis exposure during adolescence changes opioid-related neural functions and leads to increased likelihood of later opioid use.   Findings of this research confirmed that rats exposed to THC during the adolescent period self-administered greater amounts of heroin compared to the control group.   Moreover, findings indicated that rats exposed to THC in adolescence showed a persistent disturbance in the activity of enkephalin, which is the endogenous opioid neuropeptide associated with reward behaviors and hedonic states.   Findings also indicated that THC exposure led to changes in the functions of  µ opioid receptors such that heroin use was more reinforcing (via dopamine release) for rats exposed to THC during adolescence as compared to the control group.   Taken together, these results indicate that cannabis use during adolescence leads to a greater vulnerability to the reinforcing effects of opioids during adulthood, potentially leading to a greater risk for dependence and likelihood of relapse of substance use disorders.   Conclusion Despite the increasing popularity of cannabis use, both for medicinal and recreational purposes (Hwang & Clarke, 2016; Leyton, 2016), it is important to consider the resulting increased availability of cannabis to individuals during the sensitive period of adolescence.   Given the profound changes occurring in the brain during adolescence (Arain et al., 2013; Dahl, 2003; Hart, 2007; Lubman et al., 2007), teenagers are particularly susceptible to the influence of substances, which may lead to lasting changes in the brain’s functioning.   Such changes are associated with poor outcomes in several areas, including deficits in performance on executive function tasks (Becker et al., 2010; Ehrenreich et al., 1999; Fontes et al., 2011; Gruber et al., 2014; Meier et al., 2012; Pope et al., 2003; Tapert et al., 2002), an increased risk for the development of anxiety and/or depressive symptoms (Brook et al., 2001; Degenhardt et al., 2013; Fairman, 2015; Hayatbakhsh et al., 2007; Patt on et al., 2002; van Laar, van Dorsselaer, Monshouwer, & de Graaf, 2007), an increased risk for the development of a psychotic disorder (Arseneault et al., 2002; Caspi et al., 2005; DiForti et al., 2012; Henquet et al., 2005; Moore et al., 2007; Rubino & Parolaro, 2014; Stefanis et al., 2004; van Os et al., 2002), and an increased risk for future substance use/dependence (Fergusson et al., 2006; Hall & Lynskey, 2005; Stuart & Green, 2008).   Such considerations may have important implications for policy development related to the legalization of cannabis.   References Arain, M., Haque, M., Johal, L., Mathur, P., Nel, W., Rais, A., Sandu, R., & Sharma, S. 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